The Distribution of Metadiscourse Markers in Texts of English Trade Agreements

Metadiscourse markers refer to the linguistic elements that establish a relationship between the writers and the readers, the current study has conducted a quantitative analysis to measure the distribution and frequencies of metadiscourse markers in the texts of English trade agreements. The study has adopted the classifications of Hyland (2005); these classifications been applied to four English trade agreements obtained from official websites; four extracts have been selected randomly from each agreement. The results of the study have revealed that the English agreements used Interactive markers more than interactional markers.

2 investigate the distribution and frequencies of metadiscourse markers in texts of trade agreements written in English, as well as how they achieve the goals of the writers from their texts.

Literature review:
Metadiscourse has been dealt with by many scholars, first Harris (1952) coined the term, and then Crismore, Goffman and Vande Kople continued analyzing the presence of metadiscourse in different discourses. Each linguist classified metadiscourse differently, they all agreed that it is discourse about discourse, yet there were no general guidelines and clear markers for detecting the field in any text (Ebrahimi, 2018, p.9). "metadiscourse is a contextual phenomenon" (Adel, 2006, p.10), she has clarified that metadiscourse cannot be restricted to certain terms or words, it can occur in morphemes, phrases, sentences or even paragraphs that aim to interact directly with the readers (p.2). Metadiscourse refers to the linguistic terms that make the writers interfere in his text to communicate with the readers (Ho, 2018, p.72). Hyland (2005) was the first to draw a clear classification to the field of metadiscourse, he has divided it into two separate dimensions, first the interactive markers to guide the readers through the text, this group consists of (transitions, frame markers, endophoric markers, evidentials and code glosses); second the interactional dimensions which consist of (hedges, boosters, attitude markers, self-mention and engagement markers) (Hyland, 2005, p.58).
According to Hyland, Metadiscourse constructs the relationship between the writers and the readers, it represents a frame to understand communication through social engagement. It illustrates the linguistic features that make the readers feel the presence of the writers in their texts and understand their attitude toward the information & facts provided in the text. With metadiscourse, writers can create a coherent 'reader friendly' text instead of a dry boring text. (Hyland, 2000).
The research has adopted the model of Hyland (2005) to conduct a quantitative metadiscourse analysis on the texts of four trade agreements, and investigate the distribution of metadiscourse markers.
In recent years, many researches discussed the use of metadiscourse markers, how they have been distributed through variant discourses. For instance, Farahani (2018) has conducted a study on the "Usage and Distributional Pattern of Metadiscourse Features in Research Articles in Applied Linguistics Based on Hyland's Classification" the study has depended on a corpus of academic writings to figure out the distribution of interactive and interactional markers in 30 articles in Applied linguistics field. The study has found out that writers have used the interactive markers more than the interactional markers, besides, transitions, frame markers, hedges and self-mention have been the most used markers in the academic articles.
In a different study, conducted by three scholars, Mehrnaz Gholami, M.A,1 Ghaffar Tajalli, M.A,2 Nasrin Shokrpour, Ph.D3(2014), in Azad university, to measure the employment of metadiscourse markers in the medical texts written in English language and their Persian translation. The aim of the study is to discover if the metadiscourse markers in the English medical texts are the same in their Persian translation or not, and find out if there are any significant differences between the two texts. The findings of the study have revealed that there are major differences between both languages; English medical texts used more metadiscourse markers than the Persian texts, and the types of selected markers have not been the same.
The current study has conducted its analysis on trade agreements written in English language by native speakers, the researcher finds it significant to analyze these texts because no previous study has examined the linguistic features of this discourse. The aim of the study is to measure the distribution and frequencies of metadsicourse markers in the texts of trade agreements depending on Hyland classifications in 2005.

Methodology:
The analysis of the current research depends on Hyland classifications (2005); he has divided metadiscourse into interactive and interactional markers, and the first dimension guides the readers through the text, while the second guides the reader into the text. A quantitative analysis is to be conducted on four English trade agreements, four paragraphs are to be selected randomly from each agreement.
The quantitative analysis reveals the frequencies and distributions of metadiscourse markers in the selected paragraphs to reach the conclusions of total occurrences the above markers.
The following trade agreements represent the data of the research, they have been gathered from the website of World Trade Organization and other official websites.

The analysis:
The research has selected four trade agreements to make a quantitative analysis to figure out the frequencies of metadiscourse markers. The first agreement is:

Trade facilitation agreement (TFA):
This agreement entered into force at the year 2017 to decrease the complications of importation & exportation process between members of the WTO. Governments have struggled long years from red tape and Bureaucratic delays which have imposed barriers on goods shipment and transportation through countries. Accordingly, there have been an urgent demands for new trade agreement like TFA to provide quick fix for the trading system.
To write a fresh agreement, many metadiscoure markers shall be employed to persuade members of WTO to ratify and accede TFA. The research has investigated those markers in the following section The introduction is the first section in the agreement, it provides the readers with all the previous negotiations, requirements and consequences that have led to the creation of TFA. 4.1.1.1. Engagement markers: The agreement starts through addressing the readers who has represented the members of the agreement in order to engage them within the text. 4.1.1.2. Evidentials: A reference to another text has occurred in this extract, once to Doha ministerial declaration, another to annexes of Doha work program, finally to the Hong Kong ministerial declaration. Accordingly, three evidential markers have been employed in this extract to provide the readers with strong evidence to the importance of the current text. 4.1.1.3. Transitions markers: 'and', 'as well as' are two transition markers used in the above extract to enhance the shift between phrases of the extract. Lastly, after providing many explanations and clarifications, the members have decided to adopt the following provisions, and agreeing on them, this reflects the position of the writers toward the provisions of the agreement. 4.1.2. Article 2, paragraph 1.2 "Each Member shall, to the extent practicable and in a manner consistent with its domestic law and legal system, ensure that new or amended laws and regulations of general application related to the movement, release, and clearance of goods, including goods in transit…acquainted with them". 4.1.2.1. Engagement markers: When the writers speak directly to the members with the assistance of the modal verb 'shall', this indicate the employment of engagement markers.

Hedges:
Using hedges in the texts of trade agreements is indispensable. Without hedges the text will be mere facts and list of orders, to provide some flexibility in implementing these provisions, writers lean on hedges markers to give the readers some space of making their own decisions on some points. It is only when 'practicable' they can make new amendments to their laws and regulations.

Transitions:
A transition marker has been located by the researcher (and).

Code glosses:
This marker is concerned with explaining the meaning of certain words or terms that may not be clear to the readers. A code glosses is located through the use of 'including' to explain the meaning of goods might; members may wonder if the goods in transit are also included in this provisions or not. The writers have clarified to their readers in advance that this provision is applied to goods in transit.

Article 10, paragraph 9
"For the purposes of this Article, the term "outward processing" means the customs procedure under which goods which are in free circulation in a Member's customs territory may be temporarily exported for manufacturing, processing, or repair abroad and then reimported". 4.1.3.1. Frame markers: Hyland has indicated that frame markers frame the schematic structure of the text, therefore, the writers signal the structure of this extract by referring to the article itself, this paragraph is part of certain article and the term "outward processing" has been elaborated for this specific paragraph. Further information has been provided through the verb 'means', this indicates the employment of code glosses marker.

Transitional marker:
Two phrases have been sewed together through the transition marker 'or'. 4.1.3.4. Hedges: A hedge marker has been used in this extract. The modal verb 'may' represents a cautious tone when writing about custom territory.

Article 2, Footer note3
"It is understood that an advance ruling on the origin of a good may be an assessment of origin for the purposes of the Agreement on Rules of Origin where the ruling meets the requirements of this Agreement and the Agreement on Rules of Origin".
The above extract is a footnote from the text of TFA, footnotes represent an important part both to the agreement and to this study, because the whole phrase represents metadiscourse markers, it is written to explain something to the readers through speaking to them directly about something wasn't mentioned in the original text. 4.1.4.1. Attitude markers: The verb 'understood' represents the attitude of the members who understand the rules of origin might be a consequences of different agreements, this does not impede the implementation of TFA, therefor an attitude marker is located here.

Hedges:
Flexibility in implementing the provisions of TFA is achieved through the modal verb 'may'. 4.1.4.3. Evidentials: Referring to external agreements like the Agreement on Rules and Origin empower the text of TFA and prove to the readers that the current agreement does not violate its predecessors.

Endophoric markers:
Reference to other parts of the same text resembles the employment of the endophoric markers. It assists the writers with establishing coherent well textured text that cannot be understood completely without reading all its parts and understanding the links between them. The writers refer to 'requirements of this agreement' to ask the readers not to neglect reading the section of requirements to be able to make rules of origin.

Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual
Property Rights (TRIPS). World Trade Organization depends on many agreements that shall be adopted by members who accede the organization, TRIPS is one of these agreements that is an obligatory requirements. The agreement 7 regulate any trade operations related to intellectual property, like trade mark, patents, and copy rights.

Article 3, paragraph2,
"Members may avail themselves of the exceptions permitted under paragraph 1 in relation to judicial and administrative procedures". 4.2.1.1. Self-mention: This marker refers to the writers or readers of the text, members of the agreement in this extract resembles the readers of the text who shall be aware that there are some exceptions they will enjoy. 4.2.1.2. Hedges: In case, members desire to make use of some exceptions provided to them, it depends on their decision to take the exceptions or not, in their laws of intellectual property. Hence, the writers use the modal verb 'may' to employ the hedges marker of Hyland.

Endophoric markers:
The reference to paragraph 1 has registered the employment of endophoric marker.

Article 35
"Members agree to provide protection to the layout-designs (topographies) of integrated circuits (referred to in this Agreement as "layout-designs") in accordance with Articles 2 through 7 (other than paragraph 3 of Article 6), Article 12 and paragraph 3 of Article 16 of the Treaty on Intellectual Property in Respect of Integrated Circuits and, in addition, to comply with the following provisions".

Attitude markers:
The attitude marker is reflected in this extract through the verb 'agree' it is an attitude to represent the attitude of TRIPS members who have agreed to defend the design of integrated circuits.

Self-mention:
The writers of the agreement are those who are already members of WTO. For that reason, members in this extract represent the marker of self-mention.

Code glosses:
Three instances of code glosses have occurred in the above extract. The writers elaborate the meaning of three terms, all surrounded by two brackets, the terms are: -topographies -referred to in this Agreement as "layout-designs". -Other than paragraph 3 of Article 6.

Evidentials:
The treaty of intellectual property has been referred to at the last two lines of the extract, this treaty is an external text, the significance of this reference is to prove to the readers that the provision of this article respect and adhere the provisions of the treaty if intellectual property. This extract makes use of many boosters: the measures have been described by 'prompt' and 'effective' later, at the end, it ensure the fast shipment of imported goods by 'immediately'. Boosters provide certainty and avoid alternative options when the provisions is about critical topic like goods transportation.

Code glosses:
Further information is presented to the readers through the word 'including', this reflect the employment of Code glosses.

Endophoric markers:
There are three references to other parts of the text, this paragraph, paragraph 3 and 4 and paragraph 6 of article 14. The writers are guiding the readers to the location of information related to copyright obligations, without understanding these paragraphs together, the image will not be complete. This is the benefit of endophoric markers to help the readers understand the relation between parts of the text thoroughly.

Evidentials:
On the other hand, references to external texts like article 18 of Berne Convention, represents evidential marker which is an evidence that the current agreement is in accordance with previously written agreements, and does not work in isolation from them. This reference has occurred twice in the above extract.

Transition markers:
The transition marker 'and' facilitates the movement of the readers from the 1st phrase to the 2nd phrase.

Boosters:
The two words 'determined solely' located at the second line, represents two different metadiscousre markers, 'solely' is a booster to the content to make the mentioned provisions adhere to article 18 of Berne convention.

Partnership and Cooperation Agreement between the European Union and its Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Iraq, of the other part.
The government of Iraq and the European Union decided to sign a trade agreement and commit themselves to certain provisions to facilitate the trades of goods between both sides; in 2012 the two governments signed the agreement, then they amended some provisions at 2018, rounds of negotiations took its place before the signature, the agreement aims to assist Iraq in building a trade system and transfer from central market to open market so as to develop a prosperous economy.

Article 5, paragraph 6
"The Parties are deeply concerned about incitement of terrorist acts and emphasise their commitment to take all necessary and appropriate measures in accordance with international and national law, to reduce the threat posed by such incitement" 4.3.1.1. Self-mention: 'The parties' here, indicate that those who have written the articles of the agreement and have committed themselves to the provisions of the agreement, hence they represent the self-mention marker.

Boosters:
Three boosters have been registered in the above extract 'Deeply, necessary, appropriate' they narrow down the list of available options. 'Deeply' describes how much the parties are 'concerned', they are not concerned only with terrorist actions instead they are deeply concerned with emphasizing the unavoidable and critical topic of terrorism. Then, necessary and appropriate have described 'measures' so it is only the measures governments find necessary and appropriate.

Article 9, paragraph 1 "For the purpose of this Chapter, a 'customs duty' includes any duty or charge of any kind imposed on or in connection with the importation or exportation of a good, including any form of surtax or surcharge imposed on or in connection with such importation or exportation. A 'customs duty' does not include any charge equivalent to an internal tax imposed consistently with Article 11;" 4.3.2.1. Frame markers:
The term 'customs duty' has been explained, the explanation provided include its usage in this chapter, if it is mentioned in another chapter the meaning might be different or add more options.
Framing the meaning of certain term with restricted piece of text represent the usage of frame markers according to Hyland classification (2005).

Code glosses:
When writers use the verbs 'includes' and 'including', they are trying to elaborate the meaning of something previously mentioned. This is exactly the function of code glosses marker, that is to provide a further meaning to the readers. Here, the writers clarify to the readers the type of taxes and charges telling them any kind of surtax is included by the provisions of this article.

Article 18, paragraph 1& 2:
"1. Nothing in this Agreement shall prevent the Parties from adopting anti-dumping or countervailing measures in accordance with Article VI of the GATT 1994, including its Notes and Supplementary Provisions, and

the Agreement on Implementation of Article VI of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994 and with the WTO Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures. 2. This article shall not be subject to the provisions of Section VI of Title II of this Agreement."
This article is concerned with 'anti-dumping', therefore it clarifies to the readers the position of agreement between Iraq and EU toward other regulations of goods anti-dumping, it is a critical issue to any person interested in trade in goods. Accordingly, the study registers many metadiscourse markers.

Frame markers:
The writers have mentioned the opportunities provided by this agreement to other governments, this includes regulations to stop goods antidumping in GATT agreement, and this clarification about the current agreement is a frame marker that frames the whole agreement.
-In the 2nd paragraph, the writers employ the frame marker again to frame the contents of article 18 'this article', outside the provisions of section VI of title II of this agreement.

Engagement markers:
The writers have engaged the readers with the provisions of the text through the modal verb 'shall'.

Evidential markers:
All the provisions of the agreement between Iraq and EU have adhered article VI from GATT agreement, as well as agreement on Countervailing Measures with Subsidies, this evidential marker is to empower the current agreement and give it strong evidence of validity.

Endophoric markers:
The employment of such markers have been achieved through the reference to section VI of title II, the writers have referred to other parts of the same agreement to facilitate understanding the contents of the provisions, and the link between these provisions. 4.3.3.5. Transitions markers: one transition marker has been registered in the above extract 'and'. This marker has occurred in the trade agreement between Iraq and EU frequently to refer to the writers of the text that is governments of two sides.

Engagement markers:
On the same line, the modal verb 'shall' has occurred twice in this extract to reflect the employment of engagement markers to engage the readers within the text.

Evidentials:
The Text has frequently referred to another text 'agreement of sanitary and phytosanitary' to clarify that the provisions of this agreement hasn't violated the provisions of older agreements related to the same topics.

Code glosses:
Titles of agreement may be long and it is easier to create a short name for it, the new name is taken from the initial letters of the title. This change in the name shall be clarified to the readers through the use of code glosses, the writers explain to the readers that the name of Sanitary and phytosanitary agreement will be SPS from this point forward.

Frame markers:
It is worth mentioning, that the writers have made SPS 'part of this agreement'; they are framing the provisions SPS agreement within the provisions of the current agreement, they are organizing the structure of the text through combining between two different agreements, this organization is a clear usage of frame marker. 4.3.4.6. Transition markers: Transition markers has been used twice in this extract (with and which) to facilitate the movement between phrases of article 22.

Strategic Framework Agreement for a Relationship of Friendship and Cooperation between the United States of America and the Republic of Iraq
The agreement between Iraq and US entered into force at 2009, the aim has been to strengthen the relationships between the two governments and establish a long-lasting friendship, in order to cooperate in economy and trade, as well as other political fields.
The study will investigate four different extracts selected randomly from the agreement.

The preamble, Paragraph No.4:
"The United States of America and the Republic of Iraq: Recognizing both countries' desire to establish a long-term relationship, the need to support the success of the political process, reinforce national reconciliation within the framework of a unified and federal Iraq, and to build a diversified and advanced economy that ensures the integration of Iraq into the international community; Have agreed to the following" 4.4.1.1. Self-mention: The writers clarify to the readers at the beginning of any agreements who are the sides involved in the text, therefore, the writers in the first line has the names of the two governments; the governments of US and government of Iraq. The name of the two governments represents the employment of Self-mention.

Attitude markers:
Three instances of attitude markers have been used in this extract. First, the verb 'recognizing' is indicating the attitude of the two governments 'writers', 'to recognize' the desire to create a relation of friendship between them. Second, the verb 'reinforce' represents the attitude of the writers. Finally, the verb 'agreed' at the end of the extract represent an attitude marker because it expresses the endorsement of the governments to the provisions of the agreement. Attitude markers show the readers the attitude of the writers how they are confident from the validity of the provisions and necessity of the agreement.

Transition markers:
'and' is the only transition marker used in the current extract.

Paragraph from section V:
"Building a prosperous, diversified, growing economy in Iraq, integrated in the global economic system, …, as well as welcoming home Iraqi citizens currently dwelling outside of the country, … and the integration of Iraq into the international economy and its institutions. To that end the Parties agree to cooperate to: 3-Promote …, as well as bilateral exchanges, such as trade promotion activities and access to Export-Import Bank programs". 14 4.4.3.5. Code Glosses: The writers clarify to the readers that the 'joint coordination committee' will be abbreviated to (JCC) in the next articles. This kind of explanation represents the employment of code glosses.

Section XI, paragraph 3
"This Agreement may be amended with the mutual written agreement of the Parties and in accordance with the constitutional procedures in effect in both countries." 4.4.4.1. Frame markers: the writers have linked the current provision with all the provisions of the agreement, it is applied to all the other articles. Hence, 'this agreement' is a frame marker.

Hedges markers:
Hedges have frequently been employed in this agreement to approve to the readers that they have enjoyed flexibility when applying the provisions of the agreement; they are allowed to change and make the amendments they find necessary but they shall notify the other parties in written notes according to the constitutional procedures.

Transitions:
The study has registered one instance of transition markers through the preposition 'and.

Results:
The following

Conclusion:
The study has conducted a quantitative analysis to figure out the distribution and frequencies of metadiscourse markers in the texts of Trade agreements. The study has selected four trade agreements, 16 extracts have been selected randomly from the original texts, and the analysis revealed that the selected extracts employed 82 metadiscourse markers, the total interactive markers have been 49 while the interactional markers have been 33. These results lead the study to the fact that the selected extracts have depended on interactive markers more than the interactional markers. The most prominent used markers have been transition markers with 13 instances.
Thus, the writers have been interested in guiding the readers through the texts, to guarantee its coherence and the connection between different parts of the text, more than involving and engaging the readers within the text. This does not necessarily mean that the writers have ignored the interactional dimension but they focused more on the interactive dimension. 7. Suggestions for further studies: 1-A contrastive analysis for distribution of metadiscourse analysis in the Iraqi contracts and their translated versions.

2-
The distribution of metadiscourse analysis in the academic articles written by Iraqi BA students, fourth grade. 3-A metadiscourse analysis for the texts of official letters written by Iraqi English teachers.