A Discourse Analysis of Deictic Expressions in Selected Literary and Scientific Texts

Deixis is reference by means of an expression whose interpretation is relative to the (usually) exralinguistic context of the utterance such as who is speaking, the time or place of speaking the gestures of the speaker and the current location in the discourse.(Loos et.al,2004:1) The present study aims at investigating one type of person deixis (personal pronouns) in two types of texts, literary and scientific. It falls into two parts, the first one is theoretical which presents a theoretical survey concerning personal pronouns. The second part is practical that gives an account about the frequency, distributions and some special uses of personal pronouns in the analysed texts. The model adopted for the analysis is Quirk et al (1985). The data selected for the analysis consists of six texts, four of which are scientific and the others are literary. The analysis of the texts has revealed that frequency of personal pronouns is higher in literary texts than in scientific ones. In addition to that in literary texts the author can deviate the norm of writing and uses personal pronouns in a way that seems ungrammatical in order to enrich his literary work.


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4-They often have overt gender contrast 5-Singular and plural forms are often not morphologically related .
Pronouns are a closed system , they connot be expanded by the creation or addition of new items .Moreover, they are outline words they lack factual content , their content must be deduced from the context or the situation in which a pronoun used ( MacFadyen , 2007:1) .
Pronouns are classified into several types, including the personal pronouns, the demonstrative pronouns, the interrogative pronouns, the indefinite pronouns and the relative pronouns .

2-Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns may be regarded, by reason of their frequencies and their grammatical characteristics, as the most important pronouns.A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing and changes its form to indicate person, number, gender, and case (MacFadyen, 2007: 1).A personal pronoun is used in place of a noun, the noun it refers to is called the "antecedent " (Azar 1999: 139) .A singular pronoun is used to refer to a singular noun I bought a car, it was amazing Similarly a plural pronoun must refer to a plural noun I met old friends.They looked well Sometimes a personal pronun refers to a particular individual, where gender is known whereas the noun that is refered to is not generic.
A student walked into the room, she was looking for the teacher.In the sentence above "the student" is ambiguous it is clarified by using the pronoun "she".

Forms of Personal pronouns 109
English personal pronouns have various forms which indicate person , number , case and gender .The form of the personal pronoun in singular is different from its form in the plural.The following table shows personal pronouns in singular and plural Singular and plural personal pronouns As it is shown above the personal pronoun "you" unlike other personal pronouns shows no number change in its form.Personal pronouns also show distinction in their form for case.The forms of personal pronoun in the subjective case is different from their forms in the objective or possessive case.The following table shows the different forms of personal pronoun with respect to case.

Forma of personal pronouns in different cases
The subjective personal pronouns indicat that the pronoun is acting as the subject of the sentence (MacFadyen, 2007:1).In the following sentences each of the underlined words is a subjective personal pronoun and acts as the subject of the sentence.I was glad to find the bus Fatima Khudair AL-Jubouri 89 ‫العدد‬ / ‫االداب‬ ‫كلية‬ ‫مجلة‬

110
You are surely a clever child He is a good player When she was young, she earned her living They returned to their homeland We will meet at 3:30 It is an expensive ring An objective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as an object of a verb, compound verb, preposition or infinitive phras in the following sentences each of the underlined word is an objective personal pronoun (Ibid).
He presented her a present and she thanked him After reading the book he threw it a way.Our leader will address you in five minutes They will meet us at the new café Give the list to me A possessive personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is a cting as a marker of possession and defines who owns a particular object or person (MacFayen , 2007 :2) .In the sentences bellow the underlined words are the possessive personal pronouns .
The smallest gift is mine This is yours His Is on the counter Theirs will be deliverd tomorrow Ours is the green one on the counter .The forms of personal pronouns also varies with respect to gender .the form of some personal pronouns in masculine differs from those of the feminine and neuter .However such gender distinction is limited to the third person singular where " he " is used for masculine , " she " for femenine and " it " for neuter .

Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns can be classified into two groups reflexive and intensive .Reflexive and intensive pronouns have the 111 same form but they differ in function.The function of the intensive pronoun is to identifiy a subject or an object and to reinforce the meaning (Conline , 1961 : 104 ) I myself caught the thief Layla herself cooked the dinner The intensive pronouns in the sentences above are used to reinforce the meaning.Intensive pronouns have no syntactic or grammatical effect.They can be deleted from the sentence without any change in meaning.Whereas the reflexive pronouns are obligatory in the sentence .the meaning will not be clear if they are omitted She herself cut herself The first "herself" can be omitted from the above sentence , the seconed cannot because it differentiates between other possible objects such as " the meet " , her hair " and so on .

Discourse Analysis of Written Texts
Discourse analysis is a term which has come to have different interpretation for scholars working in different disipliens .It can be applied to any text that is to any problem or situation .Since discourse analysis is basically interpretative and deconstructing reading , there are no specific guidelines to follow (Brend , 1992 :365 ) .
Discourse analysis can be characterized as a way of approaching and thinking about a problem.Yet it does not provide an absolute answer to a specific problem but it enables us to understand the conditions behind a specific problem and makes us realize the essence of that problem and its resolution , lie in its assumptions that enable the existence of that problem (Ibid) .

4. Scientific Vs literary language
Writing is an essentionl form of communication Jame (1969:1) points out that a basic function of speech or writing is the communication of ideas and this process is intimately related to the cognitive abilities of man.The process of communication presupposes an audiencereal or imagined.Then a writer should take into consideration to whom he is writing.Seientific writing ;for example is a type of informative writing, its fundamental purpose is not the mere presentation of information and thought, but rather it is an actual communication of the useful material to the reader , there is no intention to amuse or entertain .Rodman (1181: 4) points out that an amusing piece of scientific writing would be refuted and described as "unscientific" .Whereas literary language must be amusing .It is characterized as having certain aesthetic feature that are not found in other varities of language .It is assumed that the aesthetic value of a literary work is derived from the unique, even deviant use of certain linguistic items .Sapir (1944:22) states that when an expression is of an unusual significance we call it literature .Then a comparison between the two languages may high-light this assumption .
A comparison between literary and scientific language is a comparision between subjectivity and objectivity .Unlike scientific , literary language is based mostly on narration and conversation which require reference to characters , places and evenls .Such reference is accomplished by using pronouns frequently .Scientific language on the other hand is a matter of presenting information or stating facts .It is characterized by being impersonal because there is no active agent to be refered to and the material must be put impersonally (Latsko , 2008 :1) .Scientific writing should convey one meaning it should call attention not to itself , but rather to its content , therefore information should be presented accurately , clearly , cociesly and in an appropriate manner to fit the reader's need and to convey the intended meaning easily .

5. Quirk Model
Pronouns constitute a heterogeneous class of items with numerous subclasses.Despite their variety there are several features that pronouns have in common which distinguish them from nouns.Quirk et al (1985:335) points out that the meaning of pronouns in itself is general and undetermined; their interpretation depends to an unusual extent on what information is supplied by context.Pronouns show distinction with respect to case, person, gender and number.

5.1Case
Most pronouns in English have only two case forms common and genitive (possessive ) , however , the personal pronouns have a further distinction between subjective and objective .The choice between subjective and objective is made on the basis of a pronoun function in the clause whether it functions as a subject or as an object.But sometimes especially in the informal style the subjective form appears not only in subject position but in that of subject complement , and also in constructions where it can be postulated that the predicate has been ellipted (Quirk et al , 1985 :335 -337).Note the following example eg.Him and Mary are going a broad for a holiday.

Person
Personal pronouns have distinction of person ; 1 st person , 2 nd person and 3 rd person .The reference of these pronouns excludes both speakers (writers) and addresses.(Quirk et al , 1985 :339) .To clarify the implication of person (Ibid: 340) present the following figure.

+S
Where s= The originator (s) of the message h= The addressee (s) o= any other referent (s) excluded from the definition of (s) and (h) In the figure above the meaning of the singular pronouns are limited to the boxes with thick borders .

Gender
Gender distinction is largely restricted to 3 rd person singular pronouns of the categories , personal , prossessive and reflexive pronouns .Quirk et al (1985:341)  The different forms of personal pronouns with respect to gender Gender distinction is nutarlized in the plural: They , them , themselves .
The choic between personal and non-personal gender is determined by whether the reference is to animate or inanimate (Ibid :341).Yet there are some exceptional uses for example "it" can refer to babies and she can be used for replacing non human thing when they are not known in relation to their gender such as (gods , angles , fairies ) and higher animals .
The choice between he and she is primarily based on the sex of the person referred to , however , difficulties of usage arise because English has no sex neuteral 3 rd person singular pronoun .Consequently the plural pronoun " they " often used informally in defiance with the indefinite pronouns everyone , everybody , someone , somebody everyone , anybody , no one , nobody (Ibid:342).e.g. , Everyone thinks they have a right to be here Has anybody brought their racket A similar choice may be made in referring back to a singular noun phrase with a personal noun of indeterminde gender as head .eg., Every student has to make up his own mind.

5.4 Number
The personal ,reflexive and possessive pronouns have singular and plural forms which are morphologically unrelated .The plural of 1 st person pronoun is" we" but it is also used to refer to the singular when the speaker has a high social role like presedents , kings , lords etc ) .The pronoun we may exclude the speaker and the persons addressed or it may be inclusive referring to the speaker and the addressee.Quirek et al (1985:343) state that the 2 nd person pronoun "you" with plural reference normally means" you" (singular ) and one or more other persons , but not "me " . 2 nd person pronouns have the same form for singular and plural , only the reflexive forms "yourself" and "yourselves" preserve a distinction between singular and plural .

Reflexive Pronouns
A reflexive pronoun ends with -"self" ( singular ) and -"selves" (plural ) these suffixes are added to the determinative possessive forms for the 1 st and 2 nd person .Quirk et al (1985: 356 ) points out that " the reflexive pronouns have two distinct uses, basic and emphatic the basic use is when the reflexive pronoun functions as an object or a complement and has a subject of its clause as its antecedent eg.they helped themselves .
The emphatic use illustrates that the pronoun is in appositional relation to its antecedent eg.We couldn't come ourselves.

6. Data Analysis
The present study aims at investigating the usage of personal pronouns in two types of texts, literary and scientific.As for scientific texts two different disciplines are chosen ; physics and chemistry .A certain number of pages are selected randomly for the purpose of analysis.For literary text ; two chapters of Jane Austen novel Pride and Prejudice are selected for the analysis (Ch.39 and Ch48).These chapters are selected because they include some special uses of personal pronouns .The texts are going to be analysed on the basis of Quirk et al's (1985) model .The analysis is of two parts , the first part is statistical that is counting the frequency of occurrence of personal pronouns in the analysed texts .The second part will give an account about some special uses of personal pronouns in the two types of texts .

The Statistical analysis
The statistical analysis shows that there are differences in the distribution of personal pronuons in the analysed texts .All personal pronouns occur with higher frequencies in literary text than in scientific ones .This is attributed to the technique used in literary writing which is based on narration and conversation This technique requires frequent use of personal pronouns .whereas in scientific text , it has been observed that some pages are empty completely from any occurance of personal pronouns.This is due to the frequent use of passive in these texts.Also it has been observed that the gender nuteral pronouns are the most frequent pronouns used in scientific texts.It is used as an "empty" or "prop" subject as in the example from text no.2 eg.It is easy to explain the expansion of the universe. .Tables no ( 4) and ( 5) show the frequency (freq.)and percentage (per.) of each personal pronoun in scientific and literary texts respectively.The frequency of personal pronouns in literary texts The statistical analysis shows that the frequency of reflexive pronouns is low in both types of texts, yet it is lower in scientific texts than in literary ones.Tables no.6 and 7 show the frequency of reflexive pronouns in scientific and literary texts respectively.The frequency of reflexive pronouns in literary text 6.2 Comment on some special uses of personal pronouns in the analysed texts

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The analysis of the texts shows that there are some differences in the use of personal pronouns in the two types of the text.The author of each type of the texts tries to make use of personal pronouns in order to fifil his own aim of writing and to fit the need of his readers.For example the objective pronoun " me " 121 in Jane Austen Pride and Prejudice is used as the subject of the verb in the following extract from ch. 39 P.219.
Kitty and me were to spend the day there Phrases of this kind are used by Lydia Bennet only ."me" used in this way occurs three times in the same chapter .Such use of an objective pronoun may be considered ungrammatical by grammarian , but in literature it may enrich the literary work , By using the pronoun "me" in this sense Austen tries to give the reader some background about the character .No. such use has been noticed in scientific text .The author of scientific text does not violate any norm of writing .His main concern is what is being presented not the way in which he presents it .
Personal pronouns in scientific text may creates some ambiguity with respect to their referent, in the following extract from text no.1 we must move on to consider the explanation ….The personal pronoun "we" in the extract above has a general referent.It has no unique or specific referent.The author may refer to himself , to himself and the reader or most probably to himself and to the group working with him and to which he is acting as a spokeman .Similary the pronoun "you" in the following extract from scientific text no.3 You must ask yourself whether such a discussion is necessary The 2 nd person pronoun can refer to anyone reads the text.It has no specific addressee.
No such ambiguity has been noticed in literay texts .Personal pronouns refer uniquely to characters participating in the context of situation.In the following extract from Pride and Prejudice ch .39 ….. and we mean to treat you all .
the speaker here is Lydia Bernnet and by "we" she refers to herself and kitty and the pronoun "you "refers to their visitors.

122
The 1 st person plural pronoun is very commonly used in scientific texts by the writer to refer to himself in a desire to avoid the pronoun "I" which may be felt to be somewhat egotistical.Such use is called by Quirk et al (1985:350) as "editorial".The following example from scientific text no.3 shows the editorial "I" .
Before we can discuss the basic problem of the origin of our universe Another comment to be mentioned concerning what is called by (Ruba : 1993:4)" a singular their or they ".Most grammarians assumed that there must be agreement between the personal pronoun and its antecedent , a word ; a whole group of words either a pronoun or unimplied noun to which a pronoun refers , but in Pride and Prejudice Jane Austen uses "they" and " themselves" with a singular antecedent .The following extracts from ch.48 P.(291 and 294) show this respectively.
Everybody began to find out, that they had always distrusted the appearance of his goodness ...for who, as Lady Chtherine herself condescendingly says, will connect themselves with such a family Rubba (1993:5) points out that such plural pronoun can only be used with a morphologically and syntactically singular antecedent when what it refers to is semantically collective and for generic and /or indefinite and/or unknown.In other words a lack of knowledge about the gendar of what is referred to will in many cases help to make the use of "singular they" sound acceptable (Ibid) .

7.Conclusion
The analysis of the texts reveled that personal pronouns are hardly used in scientific texts.This is attributed to the frequent use of passive constructions in these texts whereas in literary texts personal pronouns are used very frequently .Moreover , they have various uses of which an author can make use to achieve the easthetic value of his work .

Table No
present the following table to show gender distinction .